Dec 4, 2010

Timeline of Bible Translation History


Timeline of Bible Translation History

1,400 BC: The first written Word of God: The Ten Commandments delivered to Moses.

500 BC: Completion of All Original Hebrew Manuscripts which make up The 39 Books of the Old Testament.

200 BC: Completion of the Septuagint Greek Manuscripts which contain The 39 Old Testament Books AND 14 Apocrypha Books.

1st Century AD: Completion of All Original Greek Manuscripts which make up The 27 Books of the New Testament.

315 AD: Athenasius, the Bishop of Alexandria, identifies the 27 books of the New Testament which are today recognized as the canon of scripture.

382 AD: Jerome's Latin Vulgate Manuscripts Produced which contain All 80 Books (39 Old Test. + 14 Apocrypha + 27 New Test).

500 AD: Scriptures have been Translated into Over 500 Languages.

600 AD: LATIN was the Only Language Allowed for Scripture.

995 AD: Anglo-Saxon (Early Roots of English Language) Translations of The New Testament Produced.

1384 AD: Wycliffe is the First Person to Produce a (Hand-Written) manuscript Copy of the Complete Bible; All 80 Books.

1455 AD: Gutenberg Invents the Printing Press; Books May Now be mass-Produced Instead of Individually Hand-Written. The First Book Ever Printed is Gutenberg's Bible in Latin.

1516 AD: Erasmus Produces a Greek/Latin Parallel New Testament.

1522 AD: Martin Luther's German New Testament.

1526 AD: William Tyndale's New Testament; The First New Testament printed in the English Language.

1535 AD: Myles Coverdale's Bible; The First Complete Bible printed in the English Language (80 Books: O.T. & N.T. & Apocrypha).

1537 AD: Tyndale-Matthews Bible; The Second Complete Bible printed in English. Done by John "Thomas Matthew" Rogers (80 Books).

1539 AD: The "Great Bible" Printed; The First English Language Bible Authorized for Public Use (80 Books).

1560 AD: The Geneva Bible Printed; The First English Language Bible to add Numbered Verses to Each Chapter (80 Books).

1568 AD: The Bishops Bible Printed; The Bible of which the King James was a Revision (80 Books).

1609 AD: The Douay Old Testament is added to the Rheims New Testament (of 1582) Making the First Complete English Catholic Bible; Translated from the Latin Vulgate (80 Books).

1611 AD: The King James Bible Printed; Originally with All 80 Books. The Apocrypha was Officially Removed in 1885 Leaving Only 66 Books.

1782 AD: Robert Aitken's Bible; The First English Language Bible (KJV) Printed in America.

1791 AD: Isaac Collins and Isaiah Thomas Respectively Produce the First Family Bible and First Illustrated Bible Printed in America. Both were King James Versions, with All 80 Books.

1808 AD: Jane Aitken's Bible (Daughter of Robert Aitken); The First Bible to be Printed by a Woman.

1833 AD: Noah Webster's Bible; After Producing his Famous Dictionary, Webster Printed his Own Revision of the King James Bible.

1841 AD: English Hexapla New Testament; an Early Textual Comparison showing the Greek and 6 Famous English Translations in Parallel Columns.

1846 AD: The Illuminated Bible; The Most Lavishly Illustrated Bible printed in America. A King James Version, with All 80 Books.

1885 AD: The "English Revised Version" Bible; The First Major English Revision of the KJV.

1901 AD: The "American Standard Version"; The First Major American Revision of the KJV.

1971 AD: The "New American Standard Bible" (NASB) is Published as a "Modern and Accurate Word for Word English Translation" of the Bible.

1973 AD: The "New International Version" (NIV) is Published as a "Modern and Accurate Phrase for Phrase English Translation" of the Bible.

1982 AD: The "New King James Version" (NKJV) is Published as a "Modern English Version Maintaining the Original Style of the King James."

2002 AD: The English Standard Version (ESV) is Published as a translation to bridge the gap between the accuracy of the NASB and the readability of the NIV.

This English Bible History Article & Timeline is ©2002 by author & editor: John L. Jeffcoat III. Special thanks is also given to Dr. Craig H. Lampe for his valuable contributions to the text. This page may be freely reproduced or quoted, in whole or in part, in print or electronically, under the one condition that prominent credit must be given to “WWW.GREATSITE.COM” as the source.

Photo: A true Replica of the 1611 KJV of the Holy Bible

Oct 15, 2010

Ancient Man and His First Civilizations


Ancient Man and His First Civilizations, Canaan-3
Modern Palestine-Israel-Lebanon


When last we left Canaan, the Canaanites were being squeezed out by new Amorite invaders. Now more pressure was being put on the Canaanites by another group of Amorites, this group had just been expelled from Egypt, where they were known as the Hyksos. These Amorites/Hebrews settled in Canaan also.

Hebrew numbers had already been greatly increased by the second wave of semi-nomadic Hebrew tribes. And also by many settled Canaanites, (i.e, the Gibeonites), who joined the invaders against their city dwelling neighbors. Now with the addition of these new Hyksos, who by virtue of their experiences in Sumer and Egypt, were educated and highly skilled, the Hebrews could now begin to build a country. Wars raged and cities were destroyed.

The Hebrews began building amid the ruins of the cities that they had destroyed, and new settlements sprang up rapidly all through the hill country. The first Hebrew king was selected by the prophet Samuel, a prophet of great influence and authority. Samuel is depicted in various biblical accounts, as either favoring or not favoring the reign of a human king over Israel. In any case, he anointed Saul, a courageous military leader of the tribe of Benjamin, as the first king - in about 1020 B.C. It is not clear if Samuel consulted with others, such as an assembly, before making this appointment.

Source: http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Canaan_1aa.htm

Oct 1, 2010

Ancient Hebrew Thought


Ancient Hebrew Thought
By Jeff A. Benner

In the world, past and present, there are two major types of cultures; the Hebrew (or eastern) culture and the Greek (or western) culture. Both of these cultures view their surroundings, lives, and purpose in ways which would seem foreign to the other. With the exception of a few Bedouin nomadic tribes living in the Near East today, the ancient Hebrew culture has disappeared.

What happened to this ancient Hebrew thought and culture? Around 800 BCE, a new culture arose to the north. This new culture began to view the world very much differently than the Hebrews. This culture was the Greeks. Around 200 BCE the Greeks began to move south causing a coming together of the Greek and Hebrew culture. This was a very tumultuous time as the two vastly different cultures collided. Over the following 400 years the battle raged until finally the Greek culture won and virtually eliminated all trace of the ancient Hebrew culture. The Greek culture then in turn influenced all following cultures including the Roman and European cultures, our own American culture and even the modern Hebrew culture in Israel today.

As 21st Century Americans with a strong Greek thought influence, we read the Hebrew Bible as if a 21st Century American had written it. In order to understand the ancient Hebrew culture in which the Tenack was written in, we must examine some of the differences between Hebrew and Greek thought.

Abstract vs. concrete thought


Greek thought views the world through the mind (abstract thought). Ancient Hebrew thought views the world through the senses (concrete thought).

Concrete thought is the expression of concepts and ideas in ways that can be seen, touched, smelled, tasted and/or heard. All five of the senses are used when speaking and hearing and writing and reading the Hebrew language. An example of this can be found in Psalms 1:3; “He is like a tree planted by streams of water, which yields its fruit in season, and whose leaf does not wither". In this passage we have concrete words expressing abstract thoughts, such as a tree (one who is upright, righteous), streams of water (grace), fruit (good character) and a unwithered leaf (prosperity).

Abstract thought is the expression of concepts and ideas in ways that can not be seen, touched, smelled, tasted or heard. Hebrew never uses abstract thought as English does. Examples of Abstract thought can be found in Psalms 103:8; “The LORD is compassionate and gracious, Slow to anger, abounding in love”. As you noticed I said that Hebrew uses concrete and not abstract thoughts, but here we have such abstract concepts as compassionate, gracious, anger, and love in a Hebrew passage. Actually these are abstract English words translating the original Hebrew concrete words. The translators often translate this way because the original Hebrew makes no sense when literally translated into English.

Let us take one of the abstract words above to demonstrate how this works. Anger, an abstract word, is actually the Hebrew word אף (awph) which literally means “nose”, a concrete word. When one is very angry, he begins to breathe hard and the nostrils begin to flare. A Hebrew sees anger as “the flaring of the nose (nostrils)”. If the translator literally translated the above passage “slow to nose”, it would make no sense to the English reader, so אף, a nose, is translated to “anger” in this passage.

Appearance vs. Functional Description


Greek thought describes objects in relation to its appearance. Hebrew thought describes objects in relation to its function.

A deer and an oak are two very different objects and we would never describe them in the same way with our Greek form of descriptions. The Hebrew word for both of these objects is איל (ayil) because the functional description of these two objects are identical to the ancient Hebrews, therefore, the same Hebrew word is used for both. The Hebraic definition of איל is "a strong leader".

A deer stag is one of the most powerful animals of the forest and is seen as "a strong leader" among the other animals of the forest. Also the oak tree's wood is very hard compared to other trees such as the pine which is soft and is seen as a "strong leader" among the trees of the forest.

Notice the two different translations of the Hebrew word איל in Psalms 29.9. The NASB and KJV translates it as "The voice of the LORD makes the deer to calve" while the NIV translates it as "The voice of the LORD twists the oaks". The literal translation of this verse in Hebrew thought would be; "The voice of the LORD makes the strong leaders turn".

When translating the Hebrew into English, the translator must give a Greek description to this word which is why we have two different ways of translating this verse. This same word is also translated as a "ruler" in 2 Kings 24.15, who is a man who is a strong leader.

Another example of Greek thought would be the following description of a common pencil: "it is yellow and about 8 inches long". A Hebrew description of the pencil would be related to its function such as "I write words with it". Notice that the Hebrew description uses the verb "write" while the Greek description uses the adjectives "yellow" and "long". Because of Hebrew's form of functional descriptions, verbs are used much more frequently then adjectives.

Impersonal vs. Personal Description

The Greek culture describes objects in relation to the object itself. The Hebrew culture describes objects in relation to the Hebrew himself.

As in the example above of the pencil, the Greek description portrays the pencil's relationship to itself by using the word "is". The Hebrew describes the pencil in relation to himself by saying "I write". Because Hebrew does not describe objects in relation to itself, the Hebrew vocabulary does not have the word "is".

A Greek description of God would be "God is love" which describes God in relation to God. A Hebrew description would be "God loves me" describing God in relationship to myself.

Passive vs. Active Nouns

Greek nouns are words which refer to a person, place or thing. Hebrew nouns refer to the action of a person place or thing.

The Hebrews are active people and their vocabulary reflects this lifestyle. The Greek culture recognizes the words such as a knee and a gift as nouns which by themselves impart no action. But in the Hebrew vocabulary the nouns come from the same root word ברך (BRK) because they are related, not in appearance, but in action. The Hebrew word for knee is ברך (berak) and literally means "the part of the body that bends". The Hebrew word for a gift is ברכה (berakah), meaning "what is brought with a bent knee". The verb from the root word is ברך (barak), meaning "to bend the knee". As you can see, both Hebrew verbs and nouns have action associated with them where the Greek nouns do not.

Even the Hebrew nouns for father and mother are descriptive of action. The Hebrew word for father is אב (av) and literally means "the one who gives strength to the family" and mother אם (em) means "the one that binds the family together".

Copyright © 1999-2007 Ancient Hebrew Research Center
URL: http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/12_thought.html

Author's Disclaimer: Please feel free to use, copy or distribute any material on this site for non-profit educational purposes only.

Photo: Hebrew Israelite slaves in Egypt

Sep 25, 2010

The Genealogy of Jesus Christ


The entire Scripture speaks of the Lord Jesus Christ. This genealogy chronicles how the meanings of each prophet's name weaves the message of the Most High's Redemptive Plan in Christ to Israel first and then to the entire world.

Sep 18, 2010

The Ten Lost Tribes A Jewish Myth Pt.1!!!!!

Do you want to know the real truth about the 10 Lost Tribes of Israel



Part 2


Bonus Feature: 3 Types of Jews, Part 2


Editor's Note: I will continue to proclaim the Israelite truth. This is NOT "anti-Semitic" but pro-Biblical. The Most High is a God of truth. It is by truth, that every man's work shall be judged. As a disciple of Christ, I am admonished, "And fear not them which kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him which is able to destroy both soul and body in hell." (Matthew 10:28)

Sep 17, 2010

History of Ancient Israel


EXILED ISRAELITE MUSICIANS: This relief is from Nineveh, approx. 678 b.c.e. Israelites were always noted for their musical talents. They improved on and created many of the musical instruments used today. These include wind instruments, string instruments, and all types of percussive instruments (ref. Psalm 150). Photo Source: http://sarabe3.tripod.com/israeliteimages.html

Patriarchal Period - The history of ancient Israel from Adam and Eve to the Egyptian bondage, this section covers the Patriarchs before and after the flood, the migration and population by the sons of Noah , the trip to Egypt, and the following enslavement.

Mosaic Period - This section covers Ancient Israel from Moses through Joshua, including the deliverance of the Israelites, and their Exodus out of Egypt, and the subsequent conquest of Canaan.

Period of the Judges - This covers the history of Israel contained in the books of Judges and 1 Samuel.

The Monarchy - Also called The United Kingdom. It was established under Saul, David, and Solomon, and was the Golden Era in all of ancient Israel. Israelite culture flourished like never before as they dominated the Promise Land.

The Divided Kingdom - This period in Ancient Israel follows the death of Solomon when the unified kingdom broke into 2 separate kingdoms. (Editor's insertion: These two separate kingdoms were Israel and Judah. Read 1 Kings, chapter 12, for the details.) This section of Israel history covers the break up, and the eventual Babylonian Captivity.

The Captivity - This is the first destruction of Ancient Israel and Jerusalem. Many Israelites were taken captive to Babylon.

Post Captivity - The Old Testament covers this part of the history of Israel in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, and the last of the minor prophets. It was during this period that a migration back to Israel took place. It was in this period of Ancient Israel history that the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt by Nehemiah.

The Use of Genealogies

Ancient Israel preserves its traditions through the use of genealogies. The history of Israel builds these genealogies in the old testament book of Genesis.

Genesis is the first book in the Bible, and tells the story of creation, as well as unfolding the history behind the creation of Israel.

An understanding of the Bible is critical when studying it in a historical perspective. Though not a history book, the Bible is one of the most ancient sources of history, providing names of Kings and cities once thought made up. Many of the names mentioned in Jewish literature have been proven to exist through archaeological finds.

In fact, not one archaeological finding has contradicted the Bible. It is a divinely inspired book, invaluable as a resource for the examination of God's relationship with man, from ancient Israel to the present.

Source: http://www.israel-a-history-of.com/ancient-israel.html

Sep 16, 2010

The Ancient Hebrews


The Ancient Hebrews and the Habiru

The term "Hebrew", and its use in designating the ancient Hebrews associated with the Israelites of the Old Testament, is a term somewhat shrouded in mystery.

When the Amarna Letters were discovered, the term Habiru surfaced frequently for the first time. Bible scholars and historians were quick to determine a connection between the two, primarily based on the obvious linguistic similarity. However, this initial connection was premature.

The Habiru have widely been accepted by scholars as representing a social element only. This is one distinct difference between the Habiru and the ancient Hebrews.

Habiru held no ethnic importance. It was used to designate a new social element of displaced people forming new tribes. These people had been displaced for a number of reasons (war, famine, debt, etc.) from their native tribes and societies.

They were forced into exile, and would form up with other outcast individuals of similar fates.

These bands may include runaway slaves, overthrown kings, exiled individuals, bandits and outlaws, deserters, or migrants.

This tribes were internally composed of complex social elements from diverse backgrounds and cultures, united under the common theme of being forced from home.

Some Habiru bands became mercenary like units. Some individual Habiru became mercenaries. Habiru are found integrating themselves into their new societies at every level of society.

They ranged from domestic work, to government work, manual labor, artisans, metal workers, musicians, indentured servitude, mercenaries, farmers, etc.

They were found in every society of the ancient Middle East and Near East. The term Habiru, and related terms, were first identified around 3000 B.C., and cease to exist after 1000 B.C.

The ancient Hebrews connection to the Habiru is less easier to define. What becomes clear in the Old Testament is that there are two appellations used to denote the Israelites; with one being "Israelite", and the second being "Hebrew".

A clear understanding of the context of the word "Hebrew" and its use in ancient Hebrew culture is necessary in order to understand the difference between the two names.

The first appearance of the word "Hebrew" appears in Genesis 14:13 in association with Abraham.

"Then a fugitive came and told Abram the Hebrew. Now he was living by the oaks of Mamre the Amorite, brother of Eshcol and brother of Aner, and these were allies with Abram."

Interestingly enough, a fugitive is mentioned in this particular passage as coming to find Abram. Fugitives are a distinct and agreed upon element found within the Habiru.

The interpretation of the Hebrew word rendered "Hebrew", has been brought into question as well. The association of Abraham with a fugitive, and the questionable interpretation of the word "Hebrew", pose interesting questions. Though "fugitive" in this passage may indicate a broad spectrum of meanings, it is generally agreed upon the word in antiquity implied someone separated from his tribe and home.



Scripture seems to imply he immediately sought out Abraham, as if he had some sort of acquaintance with him. The Habiru are known to have existed throughout the later parts of the third millennium, and all throughout the second.

It is not an illogical presumption to claim Abraham may have been viewed as a Habiru cheif. He did have soldiers in his household.

He was the head of a large household, eventually splitting into two, with Lot separating himself. He did migrate from another land. However, the use of the word "Ibriy" clearly distinguishes him from the Habiru.

This first reference to Abraham must pull into the equation a brief discussion on the linguistic similarities between the Habiru and the ancient Hebrews.

The actual word used in the Hebrew language in this passage is, "Ibriy", pronounced ib-ree.

In the Strong's Dictionary of the Biblical Hebrew and Chaldee this word derives from a family name. In other words, it is a surname, from the Hebrew word Eber, and designates an Eberite.

The Hebrew word Eber indicates "a region beyond". Eber is mentioned as a descendant of Shem, and ancestor of Abraham. Genesis 10:21 makes mention of Eber.

"Unto Shem, also the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder, even to him were children born."

Interestingly enough, the word Eber finds its origins in the Hebrew word translated as "Abar". Abar is a primitive Hebrew root, found over 550 times in the Old Testament.

Two different meanings are taken from this root. One meaning is to pass over, through, by, or pass on. The second meaning is to violate a law, to be arrogant, become angry, or to transgress.

The significance of the above concerning the Habiru and the ancient Hebrews emerges from the languages found throughout the land of Canaan.

In short, many of the languages in Canaan are thought to have originated from one, or a group of, similar unknown language(s) of Semitic origin. This takes on significance when viewed in context with the appearance of the word Habiru.

The ancient Hebrews were a West Semitic tribe in the days of Abraham. Abraham, however, was the only one of the ancient Hebrews to dwell permanently in Canaan. As has been shown, much of his family dwelt in Haran and the surrounding villages and cities.

The ancient Hebrews, however, were not the only West Semitic people living in Canaan. The Phoenicians and Amorites are just a couple of the nations claiming West Semitic descent.

The Arameans were close relatives of Abraham and Jacob. The Edomites would become the West Semitic descendants of Esau. The ancient Hebrews would not become known as Israelites until God renamed Jacob such.

As shown in the previous sections, the earliest reference to Habiru is found in ancient Sumerian sources. The term appears at the same time large numbers of native Akkadian speaking people appear in Sumeria.

These Akkadians became a new element in Sumerian society, and the terms Habiru and Habiri begin appearing. Thus the earliest known reference of the word is Akkadian in nature.

The word Habiru stems from an Akkadian root scholars have been unable to identify with certainty.

The origin of languages remains one of the most bothersome mysteries to historians and scholars. The ancient Hebrew alphabet is the oldest language still in use today. Hebrew is a Semitic language, very different from the Indo-European based languages of today. Some scholars have suggested the word Habiru stems from the same West Semitic root as Ibriy.

This would account for the linguistic similarities between the words. Both words, as they are, seem to indicate a state of passing over, or, to cross over.

The Habiru consist of the criminal element of the word. Many of their members crossed over into a life of crime, and were forced to flee legal authorities.

Many of the references regarding the Habiru involve legal disputes. It is important to note that not all Habiru were criminals or law breakers.

The Hebrews

The Hebrews, on the other hand, crossed over from a migratory sense. Abraham and his family crossed over into the land of Canaan from Mesopotamia. They literally had to cross over the desert to achieve this, by way of Haran and Aram - Naharaim. In this sense, Abraham the Hebrew, may have also been called, Abraham the Habiru.

Along these same lines, the ancient Hebrews could have been viewed as part of the Habiru. It seems logical the ruling authorities would have cared less about the Hebrew lineage, and presumably would have grouped them in with the other "outcast" and "troublesome" elements found amongst the Habiru of the Amarna Letters.
The ancient Hebrews, however, took careful pains to clarify their ethnicity as being pure. Hebrew was an ethnic term. Habiru, as stated earlier, was purely a social term.

Thus, though the two may stem from the same West Semitic root, one was distinctly different from the other. Though in later Old Testament stories, as will be seen, Hebrew became a derogatory term, in the time of Abraham it was not so.

Something set Abraham apart as "Ibriy", as opposed to, "Habiru". Ibriy is Abraham's family name, thus consistent with Hebrew as an ethnic term.

This lineage is seen in the lines of Shem and Eber. Scripture lists five sons of Shem. One of these sons is Arphaxad. Arphaxad is said to have had a son named Salah.

Salah, in turn, gives birth to a son named Eber. Eber was one of the earliest post-flood members of this divine family. He was the great-grandson of Shem.

Eber was the last man of the Bible to live an exceptionally long, though still reduced, life. He lived to be 464 years old. Pelug, Eber's son, died at 239. Ages continued to significantly reduce from that point.

From the line of Eber emerges the ancient Hebrews, and eventually Abraham. By the time Abraham is referred to as the "Hebrew"(or Habiru ?) in Genesis, he is the sixth generation removed from Eber.

Eber (from root Abar) is recognized by many Bible scholars as the father of the ancient Hebrews (from root Eber), through the lineage described.

The distinguishable characteristic of the line of Eber, which from Shem can be traced to Adam, and extends to Abraham, was their worship of God Almighty.

Scripture makes it clear, however, that Abraham's forefathers worshiped other gods, and God Almighty may have just been one of their many gods.

The line of Eber perhaps held fast to the true God moreso than other family tribes. Scripture indicates the ancient Hebrews, such as Terah, previously had practiced idolatry from time to time.

Abraham, thus, fully established God Almighty as the Hebrew God by answering His call faithfully, and living a life dedicated to the worship of one God.

The linguistic similarities of the two words, coupled with the unknown origins of the Akkadian root for Habiru, seem to lend credence to theories supposing a fundamental connection between the two words.

Though different, perhaps, they may have stemmed from the same language at some point in time. The ancient Hebrews were distinguishable as an ethnic group.

Further connection between the ancient Hebrews and the Habiru were found in ancient Hittite documents attributing special divine powers to certain Habiru groups.

These Habiru groups were given special mention because of their god, and their divine presence. The ancient Hebrews indeed possessed a special Hebrew God, and a special Hebrew name for God.

It was this belief in God which separated the holy family from the other tribes of its day. However, any further connections are but speculation as to the linguistic and religious nature of the words.

The word translated as "Hebrew", "Ibriy", according to Scripture, was the term used to designate Abraham. It appears to be used in a similar way as Amorite is used to describe Mamre.

Hebrews, thus, predated the term Israelite. This term did not surface until Jacob, the son of Isaac. Jacob was renamed Israel by God. Thus, the sons of Israel became the foundation upon the Israelite bloodline. This bloodline obviously included the Hebrew line from Abraham.

The ancient Hebrews shared many similar traits to the Habiru. The two shared similar linguistic traits, and Abraham may have been considered as Habiru as well.

The unknown origin of the Akkadian root of Habiru indicates the two words may have been related to the same West Semitic language.

However, Hebrew was a distinctly different appellation used to designate a select ethnic group. Habiru designated a social element of society, of which the Hebrews were most likely a part of.

It was only after the Israelites appeared, that "Hebrew" began to take on a negative connotation. This only strengthened the connection between the Habiru and the ancient Hebrews.

The Hebrew Israelites became a separate designation for Israelites which found themselves in certain circumstances. The stories of David found in I and II Samuel best illustrate the differences between these two groups of Israelites.

These stories also serve to strengthen the identification of the Habiru with the ancient Hebrews in ways other than purely linguistic.

Source: http://www.israel-a-history-of.com/ancient-hebrews.html

First Photo Details: ISRAELITES GOING INTO EXILE "Therefore, son of man, prepare for yourself an exile's baggage, and go into exile by day in their sight..." (ref. Ezek.12:3) The Assyrians conquered and relocated the Israelites of the Northern Kingdom into what is now known as Iraq, Iran, and Kuwait. Those Israelites who escaped the Assyrians fled south into the lands of Judah, and into Egypt.
Source: http://sarabe3.tripod.com/israeliteimages.html

Sep 15, 2010

The 12 Tribes of Israel


He created Adam , He walked with Enoch , He saved Noah , and He called Abraham. In the case of Abraham, God had taken one man, uprooted him from home and family, moved him hundreds of miles away into a foreign and dangerous land, and established him in the land of Canaan.

The death of Abraham in Genesis 25:8 signaled a change in the course of direction God would take with His people.

The Bible next turns to Abraham's son, Isaac. From Isaac comes Jacob. Jacob produces twelve sons, and the 12 tribes of Israel begin to emerge and take shape. God was moving in stages, and one must keep in mind the formation of these tribes took place over the course of hundreds of years.

Modern day scholarship dismisses the notion that the 12 tribes of Israel are divisions of a larger group, the nation of Israel. They also deny the Biblical account of these tribes all developing naturally, over an extended period of time, from the patriarchal origins.

Many scholars feel the twelve tribes of Israel were joined together out of a joint historical need, whether the threat of invasion, famine, or some other happening. The Habiru formed just out of such circumstances.

Some claim the tribes were formed once they were inside of Canaan, toward the end of the Judges, and the beginning of Saul's reign. Still others claim the 12 tribes of Israel "may", in fact, have been formed in some sort of desert wandering. However, Canaan was certainly not conquered simultaneously by these twelve tribes. This school believes the conquest of Canaan took place over the course of multiple, smaller infiltrations, rather than one large invasion.

These differing schools of thought, however, cannot agree on when these tribes formed, or, when these tribes united. They are unable to provide an explanation which accounts for the formation of the 12 tribes of Israel at their earliest stages. The Torah, on the other hand, provides just that.

The root origin of the 12 tribes of Israel rests in the emphasis placed on genealogical records throughout all of the Old Testament. Scholars simply dismiss the notion of detailed family records being kept in ancient Israel when assessing the validity of Scripture. The ancient Hebrews /Israelites maintained family records with excruciating detail. It is within these genealogies the birth of the 12 tribes of Israel may be found.

The Tribe

The fundamental social and familial unit of the ancient world was the tribe. Tribes of the ancient world were composed of a number of different elements.

Tribes consisted of families, typically extended families, and individuals not of blood relation. Oftentimes tribes would intermarry, and thus larger tribes, over years, may absorb lesser tribes.

Tribes were more defined by geographical regions, and territories, than by social position, or blood. Tribes served to unite diverse families and members of society from all stratas. The tribe was the social, religious, political, and military backbone of Canaanite society.

Abraham, however, strayed from this tribal pattern. He refused to intermarry and intermingle. He obtained a wife for Isaac from their own people, maintaining the integrity and purity God demanded.

The Hebrew tribe, thus, was founded upon pure blood relation. It would maintain its own autonomy and individuality. This distinguished Abraham from his Canaanite neighbors.

However, Abraham also possessed a number of servants, perhaps slaves, and fighting men in his household. It is more than likely all of these were not of Hebrew descent, and probably some were even non-Semitic. Thus, in this aspect, the tribe, or household of Abraham was composed of many different elements as well. Isaac produces two twin boys; Esau, the oldest, and Jacob, the youngest. It is through the youngest son, Jacob, and his twelve sons, that the Bible begins to deal with twelve distinct tribes.

The birth of the 12 tribes of Israel begins with the birth of the twelve sons of Jacob: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph, and Benjamin.

From Joseph would come two tribes, each descended from one of his two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh. This will account for much of the inconsistency when dealing with the Biblical lists of the 12 tribes.

The Levites were a particular tribe, set aside for God, thus did not receive any allotment of land, only cities throughout the whole of the land.

The 12 Tribes of Israel
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Jacob and Esau : The story of Jacob and Esau has fascinated and puzzled scholars for centuries. The struggle between Jacob and Esau would later manifest itself in the struggle between their respective countries; Israel and Edom.

Jacob & The Tribes of Israel : The triumphs and tragedies of Jacob and his son's in Canaan would lay the foundation for the development of the tribes of Israel. The land of Canaan was new to them, as all but one of Jacob's sons were born in Haran.

Organization of the Twelve Tribes of Israel : The twelve tribes of Israel fled Egypt in haste. They possessed no means of settling disputes, maintaining law and order, or set chain of command. God, however, would use the time in the wilderness to establish an organized and efficient government.

The Tribe of Reuben : The tribe of Reuben descended from the firstborn son of Jacob and Leah, Reuben. As the firstborn son, Reuben played a prominent role in the early accounts. However, his role as a tribe would diminish significantly as a consequence of transgressions.

The Tribe of Simeon : The tribe of Simeon was descended from the second born son of Jacob and Leah, Simeon. This tribe dwelt in relative obscurity, and had very little impact on the history of Israel.

The Tribe of Levi : The tribe of Levi was descended from Levi, the third son of Jacob and Leah. Through an act of faithfulness in the wilderness, this tribe would become set apart by God.

The Tribe of Judah : The tribe of Judah became one of the most prominent tribes in all of Israel. The Davidic Dynasty emerged from this tribe, a lineage which culminated in Jesus Christ in the New Testament.

The Tribe of Dan : The tribe of Dan is perhaps the most enigmatic of the twelve tribes of Israel. The Danites failed to drive out their Philistine and Canaanite neighbors. As a result, they migrated to another land, in the northernmost limits of Canaan.

The Tribe of Naphtali : Naphtali was the sixth son of Jacob, and the second produced by Bilhah. Naphtali was blessed by Jacob on his deathbed. The tribe of Naphtali was a tribe of great warriors, and took part in some of the Old Testament's most important battles.

The Tribe of Gad : Gad was the seventh son of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah's maiden. Gad became the Marines of the 12 tribes of Israel. They were fierce, athletic, and skillful on the battle field. They played lead roles in the conquest of Sihon and Og, then led the Israelites across the Jordan to Jericho and beyond.

The Tribe of Asher : The tribe of Asher proved to be a tribe of contradictions and vagaries. Influenced by the pagan religion of Phoenicia and chastised by Deborah, the tribe also came to the aid of Gideon, and supplied king David with one-third of his army in Hebron.

Source: http://www.israel-a-history-of.com/12-tribes-of-israel.html

EDITOR'S NOTE: The compiler(s) of this article left out the details of the following tribes:

The Tribe of Issachar: "Issachar is a strong ass couching down between two burdens: and he saw that rest was good, and the land that it was pleasant; and bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a servant unto tribute." (Genesis 49:14-15)

The Tribe of Zebulun: "Zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea; and he shall be for a haven of ships; and his border shall be unto Zidon." (Genesis 49:13)

The Tribe of Benjamin: "Benjamin shall raven as a wolf: in the morning he shall devour the prey, and at night he shall divide the spoil." (Genesis 49:27)

The Tribe of Joseph: "Joseph is a fruitful bough, even a fruitful bough by a well; whose branches run over the wall: The archers have sorely grieved him, and shot at him, and hated him: But his bow abode in strength, and the arms of his hands were made strong by the hands of the mighty God of Jacob; (from thence is the shepherd, the stone of Israel: Even by the God of thy father, who shall help thee; and by the Almighty, who shall bless thee with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that lieth under, blessings of the breasts, and of the womb: The blessings of thy father have prevailed above the blessings of my progenitors unto the utmost bound of the everlasting hills: they shall be on the head of Joseph, and on the crown of the head of him that was separate from his brethren." (Genesis 49:22-26)

SUPPLEMENT:

Question: "What are the twelve tribes of Israel?"

Answer: The Bible lists the twelve tribes of Israel in several locations: (Genesis 35:23-26; Exodus 1:2-5; Numbers 1:20-43; 1 Chronicles 2:2; Revelation 7:5-8). It is interesting that there are slight differences in some places. The 12 sons of Israel (Jacob) were: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher and Joseph. These were the ancestors of the original twelve tribes. However, Reuben lost his rights as firstborn by defiling Jacob’s bed (Genesis 35:22; 49:3-4). In Reuben and Joseph's place, Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, became tribes of Israel (Genesis 48:5-6). As a result, the twelve tribes became Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Ephraim and Manasseh. In some other lists of the twelve tribes of Israel, Levi is not mentioned, presumably because the Levites were assigned to serve at the temple and therefore were not apportioned land of their own in Israel (Joshua 14:3).

Naming the twelve tribes is a confusing task. Revelation 7:5-8 lists the 12 tribes as: Judah, Reuben, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Manasseh, Simeon, Levi, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph and Benjamin. This is interesting…for the first time Joseph is listed as a tribe along with his son Manasseh. Why isn’t Ephraim listed? Why is Reuben listed, but not Dan? There are no perfect answers to these questions. Technically, there were more than twelve tribes if you count both of Joseph’s sons as tribes in addition to Joseph. Revelation 7 presents a list of 144,000 witnesses from twelve different tribes. It does not say why Ephraim and Dan are not listed. The best answer is that God decided not to choose any witnesses from those two tribes. Some Bible teachers understand Dan being left off the list in Revelation 7 because of what is said in Genesis 49:17, “Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse's heels so that its rider tumbles backward.”

With all of that said, what are the twelve tribes of Israel? Every list in the Bible contains Simeon, Judah, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Manasseh, Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin. In addition to those nine tribes, there are Ephraim, Reuben, Joseph, Dan, and Levi. Most Bible teachers would view Ephraim, Dan, and Levi as the additional three to result in twelve tribes. Whatever the case, God is free to re-adjust and re-account the twelve tribes of Israel as He sees fit.

Source: http://www.gotquestions.org/twelve-tribes-Israel.html

Sep 11, 2010

Ashkenazi Jews are NOT descendents of the Biblical Israelites!


After discovering who the Jews were NOT, I felt compelled to find who they were and are. The true identity of the biblical Jew is "Hebrew Israelite."

Sep 6, 2010

THE VALUE OF HISTORY


Of all subjects worthy of research, history is by far the most beneficial. Having knowledge of one’s past not only allows you to have a framework or point of reference, but also explains why present situations exist today. In other words, the past causes the present. History then, provides the only material available to study the human condition. It explains the factors that cause changes around us today.

When we gain knowledge of our past, it leaves an impression on our minds. This is more than just mere representation, but also has the power to inspire and direct us. When we discover ourselves, it provides a social and cultural context. Without clarification in our minds, of our origin, we cannot understand our current role in the world or the problems that are particular to us as a people.

More than just a collection of names, dates and dead things, history is a living, omnipresent thing. It is part of our everyday lives.

For black people, whether conscious or unaware, educated or misled, the events of the past subliminally has an effect on our lives. Just as a tree can not grow without roots, a people will not grow, without knowledge of their past. They will stagnate in a continual cycle of mistakes, unable to learn from previous experiences.

Your history, heritage, customs, culture and language are the vital ingredients for a nation. These are the social cords that unite us as a people. Without these fundamental ingredients we can not function.

Source: http://realisraelites.webs.com/valueofhistory.htm

Photo: Moses parting the Red Sea

Sep 5, 2010

THE ESSENES, as recorded by Josephus


The Jewish War, Book II. Chapter 8
(8.2)

119 For three forms of philosophy are pursued among the Judeans: the members of one are Pharisees, of another Sadducees, and the third [school], who certainly are reputed to cultivate seriousness, are called Essenes; although Judeans by ancestry, they are even more mutually affectionate than the others. 120 Whereas these men shun the pleasures as vice, they consider self-control and not succumbing to the passions virtue. And although there is among them a disdain for marriage, adopting the children of outsiders while they are still malleable enough for the lessons they regard them as family and instill in them their principles of character: 121 without doing away with marriage or the succession resulting from it, they nevertheless protect themselves from the wanton ways of women, having been persuaded that none of them preserves her faithfulness to one man.

(8.3)

122 Since [they are] despisers of wealth—their communal stock is astonishing—, one cannot find a person among them who has more in terms of possessions. For by a law, those coming into the school must yield up their funds to the order, with the result that in all [their ranks] neither the humiliation of poverty nor the superiority of wealth is detectable, but the assets of each one have been mixed in together, as if they were brothers, to create one fund for all. 123 They consider olive oil a stain, and should anyone be accidentally smeared with it he scrubs his body, for they make it a point of honor to remain hard and dry, and to wear white always. Hand-elected are the curators of the communal affairs, and indivisible are they, each and every one, [in pursuing] their functions to the advantage of all.

(8.4)

124 No one city is theirs, but they settle amply in each. And for those school-members who arrive from elsewhere, all that the community has is laid out for them in the same way as if they were their own things, and they go in and stay with those they have never even seen before as if they were the most intimate friends. 125 For this reason they make trips without carrying any baggage at all—though armed on account of the bandits. In each city a steward of the order appointed specially for the visitors is designated quartermaster for clothing and the other amenities. 126 Dress and also deportment of body: like children being educated with fear. They replace neither clothes nor footwear until the old set is ripped all over or worn through with age. 127 Among themselves, they neither shop for nor sell anything; but each one, after giving the things that he has to the one in need, takes in exchange anything useful that the other has. And even without this reciprocal giving, the transfer to them [of goods] from whomever they wish is unimpeded.

(8.5)

128 Toward the Deity, at least: pious observances uniquely [expressed]. Before the sun rises, they utter nothing of the mundane things, but only certain ancestral prayers to him, as if begging him to come up. 129 After these things, they are dismissed by the curators to the various crafts that they have each come to know, and after they have worked strenuously until the fifth hour they are again assembled in one area, where they belt on linen covers and wash their bodies in frigid water. After this purification they gather in a private hall, into which none of those who hold different views may enter: now pure themselves, they approach the dining room as if it were some [kind of] sanctuary. 130 After they have seated themselves in silence, the baker serves the loaves in order, whereas the cook serves each person one dish of one food. 131 The priest offers a prayer before the food, and it is forbidden to taste anything before the prayer; when he has had his breakfast he offers another concluding prayer. While starting and also while finishing, then, they honor God as the sponsor of life. At that, laying aside their clothes as if they were holy, they apply themselves to their labors again until evening. 132 They dine in a similar way: when they have returned, they sit down with the vistors, if any happen to be present with them, and neither yelling nor disorder pollutes the house at any time, but they yield conversation to one another in order. 133 And to those from outside, the silence of those inside appears as a kind of shiver-inducing mystery. The reason for this is their continuous sobriety and the rationing of food and drink among them—to the point of fullness.

(8.6)

134 As for other areas: although there is nothing that they do without the curators’ having ordered it, these two things are matters of personal prerogative among them: [rendering] assistance and mercy. For helping those who are worthy, whenever they might need it, and also extending food to those who are in want are indeed left up to the individual; but in the case of the relatives, such distribution is not allowed to be done without [permission from] the managers. 135 Of anger, just controllers; as for temper, able to contain it; of fidelity, masters; of peace, servants. And whereas everything spoken by them is more forceful than an oath, swearing itself they avoid, considering it worse than the false oath; for they declare to be already degraded one who is unworthy of belief without God. 136 They are extraordinarily keen about the compositions of the ancients, selecting especially those [oriented] toward the benefit of soul and body. On the basis of these and for the treatment of diseases, roots, apotropaic materials, and the special properties of stones are investigated.

(8.7)

137 To those who are eager for their school, the entry-way is not a direct one, but they prescribe a regimen for the person who remains outside for a year, giving him a little hatchet as well as the aforementioned waist-covering and white clothing. 138 Whenever he should give proof of his self-control during this period, he approaches nearer to the regimen and indeed shares in the purer waters for purification, though he is not yet received into the functions of communal life. For after this demonstration of endurance, the character is tested for two further years, and after he has thus been shown worthy he is reckoned into the group. 139 Before he may touch the communal food, however, he swears dreadful oaths to them: first, that he will observe piety toward the deity; then, that he will maintain just actions toward humanity; that he will harm no one, whether by his own deliberation or under order; that he will hate the unjust and contend together with the just; 140 that he will always maintain faithfulness to all, especially to those in control, for without God it does not fall to anyone to hold office, and that, should he hold office, he will never abuse his authority—outshining his subordinates, whether by dress or by some form of extravagant appearance; 141 always to love the truth and expose the liars; that he will keep his hands pure from theft and his soul from unholy gain; that he will neither conceal anything from the school-members nor disclose anything of theirs to others, even if one should apply force to the point of death. 142 In addition to these, he swears that he will impart the precepts to no one otherwise than as he received them, that he will keep away from banditry, and that he will preserve intact their school’s books and the names of the angels. With such oaths as these they completely secure those who join them.

(8.8)

143 Those they have convicted of sufficiently serious errors they expel from the order. And the one who has been reckoned out often perishes by a most pitiable fate. For, constrained by the oaths and customs, he is unable to partake of food from others. Eating grass and in hunger, his body wastes away and perishes. 144 That is why they have actually shown mercy and taken back many in their final gasps, regarding as sufficient for their errors this ordeal to the point of death.

(8.9)

145 Now with respect to trials, [they are] just and extremely precise: they render judgment after having assembled no fewer than a hundred, and something that has been determined by them is non-negotiable. There is a great reverence among them for—next to God—the name of the lawgiver, and if anyone insults him he is punished by death. 146 They make it point of honor to submit to the elders and to a majority. So if ten were seated together, one person would not speak if the nine were unwilling. 147 They guard against spitting into [their] middles or to the right side and against applying themselves to labors on the seventh days, even more than all other Judeans: for not only do they prepare their own food one day before, so that they might not kindle a fire on that day, but they do not even dare to transport a container—or go to relieve themselves. 148 On the other days they dig a hole of a foot’s depth with a trowel—this is what that small hatchet given by them to the neophytes is for—and wrapping their cloak around them completely, so as not to outrage the rays of God, they relieve themselves into it [the hole]. 149 After that, they haul back the excavated earth into the hole. (When they do this, they pick out for themselves the more deserted spots.) Even though the secretion of excrement is certainly a natural function, it is customary to wash themselves off after it as if they have become polluted.

(8.10)

150 They are divided into four classes, according to their duration in the training, and the later-joiners are so inferior to the earlier-joiners that if they should touch them, the latter wash themselves off as if they have mingled with a foreigner. 151 [They are] long-lived, most of them passing 100 years—as a result, it seems to me at least, of the simplicity of their regimen and their orderliness. Despisers of terrors, triumphing over agonies by their wills, considering death—if it arrives with glory—better than deathlessness. 152 The war against the Romans proved their souls in every way: during it, while being twisted and also bent, burned and also broken, and passing through all the torture-chamber instruments, with the aim that they might insult the lawgiver or eat something not customary, they did not put up with suffering either one: not once gratifying those who were tormenting [them], or crying. 153 But smiling in their agonies and making fun of those who were inflicting the tortures, they would cheerfully dismiss their souls, [knowing] that they would get them back again.

(8.11)

154 For the view has become tenaciously held among them that whereas our bodies are perishable and their matter impermanent, our souls endure forever, deathless: they get entangled, having emanated from the most refined ether, as if drawn down by a certain charm into the prisons that are bodies. 155 But when they are released from the restraints of the flesh, as if freed from a long period of slavery, then they rejoice and are carried upwards in suspension. For the good, on the one hand, sharing the view of the sons of Greece they portray the lifestyle reserved beyond Oceanus and a place burdened by neither rain nor snow nor heat, but which a continually blowing mild west wind from Oceanus refreshes. For the base, on the other hand, they separate off a murky, stormy recess filled with unending retributions. 156 It was according to the same notion that the Greeks appear to me to have laid on the Islands of the Blessed for their most courageous men, whom they call heroes and demi-gods, and for the souls of the worthless the region of the impious in Hades, in which connection they tell tales about the punishments of certain men—Sisyphuses and Tantaluses, Ixions and Tityuses—establishing in the first place the [notion of] eternal souls and, on that basis, persuasion toward virtue and dissuasion from vice. 157 For the good become even better in the hope of a reward also after death, whereas the impulses of the bad are impeded by anxiety, as they expect that even if they escape detection while living, after their demise they will be subject to deathless retribution. 158 These matters, then, the Essenes theologize with respect to the soul, laying down an irresistible bait for those who have once tasted of their wisdom.

(8.12)

159 There are also among them those who profess to foretell what is to come, being thoroughly trained in holy books, various purifications, and concise sayings of prophets. Rarely if ever do they fail in their predictions.

(8.13)

160 There is also a different order of Essenes. Though agreeing with the others about regimen and customs and legal matters, it has separated in its opinion about marriage. For they hold that those who do not marry cut off the greatest part of life, the succession, and more: if all were to think the same way, the line would very quickly die out. 161 To be sure, testing the brides in a three-year interval, once they have been purified three times as a test of their being able to bear children, they take them in this manner; but they do not continue having intercourse with those who are pregnant, demonstrating that the need for marrying is not because of pleasure, but for children. Baths [are taken] by the women wrapping clothes around themselves, just as by the men in a waist-covering. Such are the customs of this order.

Editor's Note: It is believed by certain scholars that Jesus, the Messiah of Israel and his cousin John the Baptist were Essenes. This is my belief. The reader is encouraged to compare the data shared here with the Gospel accounts, the similarites, as they relate to the lives and teachings of Jesus and John are surprisingly abundant.

***This is a deliberately literal translation of the Greek by Steve Mason, Flavius Josephus: translation and commentary, vol. 1b: Judean War (Leiden: Brill, 2008).
Source: http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/josephus-essenes.asp

Photo: Qumran. This is the location where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. It is believed, by some scholars, that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. Many scholars propose that Qumran was the actual home of the Essenes, as well. Qumran is located on a dry plateau about a mile inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea in the West Bank, Israel.

Sep 1, 2010

The Hebrew AlephBet


The Ancient Hebrews believed that the Hebrew AlephBet were the building blocks of creation. The Hebrew alphabet has 22 letters, five of which use different forms at the end of a word. Hebrew is written from right to left. Originally, the alphabet was an abjad consisting only of consonants. Gen. 1:1 reads Beresheet Bara Elohim Eth HaShamayim VeEth HaArets. The beginning letter of Beresheet is Beth. And from this letter God speaks. Beth represents the Son, the Messiah, Jesus Christ. And it is through the Son that the speech and mind of God is communicated. It is by wisdom that the manner of God's revelation is unveiled. To read the scripture in Hebrew is to literally step into the mind of God and the world in which the Bible was conceived. The script presented here is the "Ketab Merubba" or more commonly called the "Square script" which was adopted by the Hebrew Israelites during the Bablyonian exile, circa 6th century BC. This is the Hebrew alphabet I have learned and currently read. The Hebrew ultimately unlocks Christ. I cannot comprehend how anyone can study this awesome language and not see the Lord Jesus Christ, the Messiah and King of Israel. As I have studied the Hebrew, going on a year now, my affection for the Most High grows and my connection to my Hebrew heritage strengthens. All Praises to the Most High in His Son Jesus Christ.


This is the Paleo-Script. The earliest written language (according to modern scholars) is the Proto-Sinaitic script, which the Biblical Hebrew language directly descends from. Over time, Proto-Sinaitic became the Phoenician Script also known as "Paleo Hebrew." The Paleo Hebrew Script is the script the Torah was originally written in, and Paleo Hebrew is the ancient language the Israelites spoke in Bible times. Here is what the Paleo Hebrew Script looked like (and the Hebrew Alphabet the ancient Hebrews would have known). Some call it the "Lahashawan Qadesh," literally, "The Holy Tongue." This is the Hebrew I also want to learn and master, as I am attempting with the Square Script.

Aug 10, 2010

The Revelation of Israel (NEW)

This video series outlines in scriptural detail the identity of the Children of Israel. As you view these videos the reader is encouraged to have a King James Bible, a notebook, and a pen or pencil handy for the purpose of notetaking. We ought to be as the Judean Bereans, "And the brethren immediately sent away Paul and Silas by night unto Berea: who coming thither went into the synagogue of the Jews. These were more noble than those in Thessalonica, in that they received the word with all readiness of mind, and searched the scriptures daily, whether those things were so." (Acts 17:10-11)
Note: Series originally recorded: August 5, 2010

Part 1


Part 2


Part 3


Part 4


Part 5

Aug 5, 2010

Hebrew Brick Makers


Hebrew Brick Makers in Egypt, 18th Pharaonic Dynasty, Ancient Egypt.
"And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in morter, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field: all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour." (Exodus 1:14)

Aug 1, 2010

Judean Captives of Lachish (701 BC)


This plate is a detail from the palace reliefs of the Assyrian king Sennacherib showing the capture of the Judean city of Lachish in 701 BC. In this scene, an Assyrian soldier is escorting two Judean captives, perhaps royal officials, before the king (not shown); their hands are raised in a plea for mercy.
Source: THE OXFORD HISTORY OF THE BIBLICAL WORLD
Michael D. Coogan, Editor
Oxford University Press, 1998
Plates Insert
Editor's Note: This scene corresponds to Scripture. Read 2Kings 18:13-14.

Jul 31, 2010

The Israelites Went to West Africa Part 1 of 4


Hebrews in West Africa: Josephus from his book The Great Roman-Jewish War: 66-70, where he writes about this Jewish dispersion and captivity. "General Vaspasian and his son Caesar Titus fought against the Jews. Millions of Jews fled into Africa, among other places, fleeing from Roman persecution and starvation during the siege."

Jul 29, 2010

Black PALESTINE In Israel


Ali Jiddah, a Black Palestinian leader acknowledges the ancestry of the so-called "African-American." For he says the following, "We are deeply rooted as Africans, as Palestinian Africans to this land...we know that our ancestors and I'm talking about thousands and thousands of years, who have been in this country but they were spread away, taken to Africa, from Africa to the United States."(Emphasis added) This is the only foreign black I have ever heard claim us, so-called "African-Americans" as kin, as their own. Much respect to Brother Ali Jiddah.

Jul 28, 2010

Jews in Africa



Jews in Africa
Part I - The Berbers and the Jews
Fact Paper 19-I
© Samuel Kurinsky, all rights reserved

Berbers and Jews, a Unique Relationship; The Historical Background
The Berbers were Northwest African tribes inhabiting an area known as the Barbary Coast. The former Barbary States now comprise the modern states of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The Berbers spoke variations of a Hamitic language, mainly Tuareg and Kabyle. The Tuaregs were nomadic Berber tribes ensconced along the trade routes across the Sahara desert. Other tribes settled near the coast.

Judaic presence in the continent of Africa can be said to go back to the Biblical sojourn of Abraham in the lush Nile Delta (Goshen), where Abraham, together with his entourage and herds of cattle awaited the passage of a drought in Canaan. It is also related in the Bible that the vizier to the Pharaoh, Joseph, summoned his family to join him in Egypt. Many Israelites followed, at first as settlers, and then as slaves captured in Canaan by the aptly characterized "Warrior Pharaohs."

After the states of Israel and Judah came into existence, Judaic traders traveled westward along the African coast with the voyagers of Tyre and Sidon, the Canaanite sea-farers referred to by the Greeks as the "Phoenicians." Jews composed a significant proportion of the major North African Canaanite settlement at Carthage (Kart Hadash, or "New City"), and Jewish presence has been well documented elsewhere along the coast during the Pre-Roman period. The Romans termed the Canaanite settlers the Peonicus Carthagenians, which in turn has been transcribed into the "Punic Peoples."

The Canaanite city-states of Utica and Carthage were ruled by a Soffut, akin to the Israelite shoffet, or judge. In Jews and Photography, George Gilbert notes that "in the Mellahs (the Jewish quarters) of Morocco it has long been legend that Jews settled in Northwest Africa even before the destruction of the second temple (586 BCE). In support of this belief one sees Hebrew inscriptions on tombstones in the Roman town of Volubilis (west of modern Fez)."1

Under the Ptolemaic Greeks (323-31 BCE), the Jews brought their technological, industrial and commercial expertise to Alexandria, one of the largest and economically important cities of antiquity. Judaic artisans, merchants and scholars composed some 40% of the population. They were organized into guilds with reserved sections in the synagogues. The tannaic scholar, Rabbi Judah, visited Alexandria and reported: "... they were seated there not in mixed order, but goldsmiths apart, silversmiths apart, and weavers apart, blacksmiths apart, coppersmiths apart, and weavers apart. So that when a poor [artisan] entered there, he recognized the members of his own craft and turned to them to find means for the maintenance of himself and his family."

Joseph ben Sirach (Ecclesiastus) writing during the Greek period at the end of the third century, describes the activity of Judaic artisans of his time in vivid poetry:

The maker of carving and cunning device,
Who by night as by day has no rest,
Who engraveth signet rings,
and whose art is to make the likeness true,
And his anxiety to compleyte the work,
So also the smith that sitteth by the furnace,
And regardeth his weighty vessels;
The flame of the fire cracketh his flesh,
And with the heat of his furnace he gloweth;
To the hammer’s sound he inclineth his ear,
And to the vessel’s pattern he directeth his eyes.

The Judaic artisans proudly wore distinctive badges of their particular trade. The tannaic scholar of the first century CE, Eleazer ben Azariah, said of the wearing of these badges, "There is something grand about artisanship; every artisan boasts of his trade, carrying boldly his badge on the street."

Judaic artisans continued to practice their trades in North Africa under the Romans. The Romans considered the manual trades base and inappropriate for themselves. It was none other than Emperor Hadrian Augustus who inadvertently complimented the industrious Jews of Alexandria in a report to his consul, Servianus; in placing them among the proletariat of the city he inadvertently credited them with being the skilled craftsmen of the city, and with the revolutionary process of glassblowing:

"[The Jews in Alexandria are] prosperous, rich and fruitful, and in it no one is idle. Some are blowers of glass, others makers of paper, all are at least weavers of linen or seem to belong to one craft or another; the lame have their occupations, the wounded have theirs, the blind have theirs, and not even those whose hands are crippled are idle."

Alexandria was, outside of Asia, the most populous Jewish center in the Diaspora. Philo estimated the number of Jews in Egypt to have reached the one million mark; Josephus had likewise numbered the population of Egypt as eight million, of which one million were Jews.

During the Ptolemaic period Judaic settlements spread across North Africa. In the Roman period they were a considerable part of the population of the large cities of Said and Memphis, east and south of Alexandria. They were likewise concentrated in seventeen cities west of Alexandria, a region called Cyrenaica, extending from modern-day Tobruk to Bengazi and Tripoli on the Libyan coast. The major towns of that region, Chersonesus, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice had large contingents of Jews. This coastal region was vital to the round-the-Mediterranean voyagers of that era; it continued to be so for the next two thousand years. In the first century of the Common Era the total North African Jewish population approached two million in number.

The Judaic community of Cyrene was second only to Alexandria in importance. It had been settled by Alexander the Great with 40,000 Judaic soldiers and their families, and continued to expand in military and commercial importance as a Judaic garrison under the Romans. The second book of Maccabees was written by Jason of Cyrene; it served as an inspiration for many of the Jews of that city to join in the great Judaic rebellion of 66 C. E.

Judaic Rebellions in Africa
In the year 115 a race riot against the Jews took place by the Pagans and Greeks of the city of Cyrene. Usually, the Romans intervened to prevent the Jews from putting up a stiff defense. However, the Roman armies were then preoccupied with the resistance of the Jews in Babylonia (Parthia) to Emperor Trajan’s ambitious drive to place all of Mesopotamia under Roman rule. Almost no Roman soldiers were available in Cyrenaica to contain the riots or restrain the Jews, the regular army having been sent to Trajan’s aid. "Consequently, the Jews were able to fight back and to carry the battle into the places where the pagans resided. What is more, the Jews of the island of Cyprus, and those of Egypt joined in the fighting."2

The island of Cyprus enters the Judaic/African saga with the significant part the Cypriot Jews played in the succession of rebellions and resistance of the Jews against the Romans. Jews had been present in Cyprus far back into antiquity as traders accompanying the Sidonian and Tyrian seafarers. Then, "about 100 BCE, Jewish fishermen from the Judaic coast settled the island. Cyprus received many more Jews after the first Zealot rebellion, as thousands were sent by the Romans to slave in the copper mines.3

A Cypriot Jew, Barnabus, organized a rebellion against their Roman masters. He succeeded in arming the copper workers, Jews and Canaanites, "and secretly prepare them for insurrection. It was the Sabbath and the Jewish workers were given their customary day of rest. All was peaceful in the coastal towns, and the Jewish men were gathered in the synagogues for prayer as usual. Just as the sun went down on that Saturday night of June 19th, 117, the ram’s horn was blown. This was not a ritual observance, but the signal for a sudden and terrible civil war."4

The Jews wreaked revenge upon their oppressors in Cyrenaica. What had started as a race riot became a war. "The Jews of the three districts involved organized regular armies and took bloody revenge for all they observe to bear during the half century before. Trajan hurriedly sent Turbo, one of his generals, to restore order. Turbo’s soldiers were joined by the pagan population of the affected districts. They attacked the Jews, both the fighters and the peaceful population, more mercilessly than the Jews had attacked them. In the island of Cyprus every single Jew was killed, the total running into the thousands. A law was adopted never to permit a Jew to set foot on the island even if he were shipwrecked nearby. In Egypt and Cyrene the Jewish population was treated with almost equal ferocity. Thereafter the once flourishing Jewish community of Alexandria was definitely on the downgrade."5

The ignominy of having a rebellion almost succeed in destroying the Roman Empire led a Roman historian, Deo Cassius [LXVII, 32], 50 years after the event, to write a bitter, self-serving account of the Judaic victories. It was a rabid mixture of fact and fiction; intended to justify the atrocities wreaked upon the Jews for daring to challenge the rule of the Roman Emperor. The account included calumnies which lived on to haunt the Jews for centuries to come throughout Christendom.

"The Jews of the region of Cyrene," wrote Deo Cassius, "had put one Andreas at their head and were destroying both the Romans and the Greeks. They would cook their flesh, make belts for themselves of their entrails, and wear their skins for clothing. Many they sawed in two from their heads downwards. Others they would give to wild beasts and force still others to fight as gladiators."

"In all, consequently, two hundred and twenty thousand perished. In Egypt also they performed many similar deeds and in Cyprus under the leadership of Artemio. There likewise two hundred and forty thousand perished. For that reason no Jew may set foot in that land, but even if one of them is driven upon that island by force of the wind he is put to death. Various persons took part in subduing these Jews, one being Lusius, who was sent by Trajan."6

Thus, setting aside the obvious calumnies, we see that Cassius inadvertently documented the size of the Judaic community and the strength of the Judaic forces. The ferocity ascribed to the Jews was in fact practiced by the Romans, albeit cannibalism was not part of their extermination drive. In addition to the decimation of hundreds of thousands of Jews in Cyrenaica and Cyprus, the Jews of Egypt fell under the vindictive swords of the Romans.

"The aggadah, [Babylonian Talmud, Gittin, 57b] in its usual vivid fashion describes the greatness of the Egyptian Jewish community and the extent of the slaughter after the revolt: "[Hadrian, successor to Trajan] slaughtered in Egypt six hundred thousand and again six hundred thousand, twice as many as had gone forth from Egypt [at the time of the exodus]... so that the blood ran in the sea as far as Cyprus."7

Jews Move West
Blocked from escape to the east, many Jews found refuge to the west. The westward movement of the Jews from Egypt and Cyrenaica to the Barbary states was once again swelled by the expulsion of the Jews from Alexandria by Bishop Cyril in 414, and by recurrent Byzantine expulsions through the next few centuries.

The effect of each of the expulsions was short-lived. The Jews, uniquely the technologically advanced, literate, and commercially savvy element among the backward indigenous populations, remained crucial for the conduct of African industry and commerce. Economic difficulties resulting from successive expulsions led recurrently to liberalized policies and a new influx of Judaic artisans and traders. That the persecutions proved ineffective in obliterating Judaic presence is evidenced by the account of the subsequent conquering Arab general, ‘Amir ibn al-As, who reported that he found 40,000 tax-paying Jews resident in Alexandria alone, inferring the existence of a total Judaic population of several times that figure. The Arab general, stemming from a backward desert society, was likewise staggered to find 4000 "palaces," 4000 baths [!] and other visible evidence of a prosperous community within the city.8

Albeit the figures appear somewhat inflated, two facts are manifest from the Arab general’s report: The numbers of the Jewish community, and the high level of civilization encountered by the astonished Arab general. The confrontation of the primitive Arabs with the advanced science and technology of the Alexandrian Jews was repeated as the Arab armies crossed North Africa. Entering the arena as barbaric warriors, they eventually absorbed the attributes of an advanced civilization from the Jews.

Moroccan Muslim traditions relate that as the Arabs advanced, the Greeks evacuated the towns and cities. The Jews, however, stayed on, and their numbers were swelled by an influx of Jews from Syria and Egypt into the vacuum left by the Greeks.9

As a result of the Emperor Justinian’s intolerant policies in the sixth century, Jews were driven inland, and again found refuge among the hinterland Berber tribesmen. The Berbers not only welcomed the Jews, but eight of the tribes, impressed with the erudition and technological acumen of the Jews, disavowed their shamanistic, pagan concepts and adopted Judaism.

Judaic/Berber Alliance under Queen Kahena
Thus, in the year 694, when the rampaging Arab armies drove relentlessly westward along the Barbary Coast, the Jews found themselves allied with the Berbers against the invasion. The confederacy of Jewish Berber tribes rallied around the Jewish/Berber priestess Kahena. The Berbers crowned Kahena as queen, and accepted her as their military leader.

The story of Dehiyya al-Kahina malkat Afriqah (Queen of Africa) is told by Ibn Khaldun, in a literary biography in Hebrew by N. Sloushz. Khaldun’s rendition leans heavily on legendary sources, but Salo Baron notes that "Nevertheless this account is essentially confirmed and amplified in many significant details in the more recently published chronicle of an older Arab writer, ‘Ubaud ibn Salih ibn ‘Abd al-Halim."10

Khaldun’s chronicles about "this medieval version of the prophetess Deborah" hold that the priestess lived 127 years, and governed the tribe of Jeraua with the aid of her three sons for 65 years. Clearly an expansion of the truth, the historical kernel of the legends remains a classic of women’s participation in the resistance to tyranny, "as women sooth-sayers and tribal leaders in war and peace had long been known and poetically extolled even among the pre-Islamic Arabs."

Monroe Rosenthal and Isaac Mozeson paid tribute to many noteworthy women warriors in their book, Wars of the Jews, and report about Kahena that "The Berbers of the Aures mountains retain legends of her bravery. She was said to have been born to a poor Jewish family of cave-dwellers. A chieftain of a Judeo-Berber tribe terrorized her Aures mountain settlement and demanded Kahena as a wife. When she rejected him he slaughtered people of her village. She then gave herself to him, but, like the Biblical heroine, slew him with a nail to the skull on the wedding night."11

The Arab armies enriched themselves as they rampaged across Persia, Afghanistan and northern India to the east, and then in Egypt and Libya to the west. "The march of Islam had barely missed a step when, in 694, the Arab forces drove into Africa Minor. Expecting an easy sweep, the Moslems met fierce resistance in Barbary."12

The Berbers rallied around their queen, the Jewess, Kahena, swearing to follow her into battle against the invaders. The Judeo/Berber army was swelled by soldiers of the pagan Berber tribes after their king Kocilla was killed by the Arabs. Queen Kahena became truly the queen and military commander of all the Berbers!

"Lions of Africa and Judah," the queen would shout to her Berber troops, "show these Arabs that we will never be enslaved by Islam. Our beloved Africa will remain free. Let our slogan be the cry of the Zealots of old: Freedom or death."

Under their valiant queen, Northwest Africa was cleansed of Arab mercenaries. Commander Ukba, who had at one point broken through all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, was killed in a Berber ambush. His armies were pushed back in retreat to Kairwan, the new Moslem base in central Tunisia. "The arrogant Ukba had tried to intimidate the proud Berbers with force instead of patiently trying to convert them to Islam with face-saving diplomacy." 13 Queen Kahena’s skills were again tested in the second, more massive Arab invasion. A new Arab general, Hassan, had driven across North Africa with a fresh army of 40,000 horseman, and had taken Carthage from the Byzantine Greeks. Queen Kahena did not confront this massive force, but outflanked it by taking the city of Bagia from its Byzantine garrison. She roused the Christian population to join her forces in resistance to the Islamic invaders. When the Arab army laid siege to liberated Bagia, Kahena and her army streamed out of the city by secret passageways. They circled around to assault the enemy from behind a rocky prominence at Wadmini. The queen’s cavalries spent the night in the saddle, forcing the Arab horsemen to do likewise. The relentless pressure through the night took a toll on the on the travel-weary Arabs, who were not in their native environment and were disadvantaged by an ignorance of the terrain.

With the break of dawn, "the Berber cavalry attacked - spurred on by their fiery queen. The townspeople of Bagia, Greeks, Copts and Phoenicians, united and inspired by Queen Kahena, simultaneously marched out on foot at the Arabs’ rear. The Berbers charged with their rugged mountain ponies, while the Moslems countered with their swifter but more nervous Arabian stallions. A thousand Berber lances clashed with slashing Arab scimitars, as the impassioned Judeo-Berbers threw themselves at the fanatic Moslem Ishmaelites. The Arabs were completely routed. The main body of the army retreated as far as Gabes, while stragglers were driven into the wilderness where they perished."14

Under their triumphant queen’s command, the Berber armies liberated Carthage, and swept on across North Africa to free it from both the Byzantines and the Arabs. The local Christians hailed the queen as liberator from the Arabs, and the Judaic communities, who had suffered dreadfully under heavy Roman and Byzantine taxation, hailed her as their deliverer. Kahena’s armies swelled with Jewish volunteers from the numerous hill communities that dotted the ridges of the mountains. The Bishop of Bula Regia had flowers strewn along her path.

For the next five years, the coalition of the diverse local elements held firm, and the region enjoyed a peaceful period of freedom from foreign domination.

The wily Arab commander, Hassan Ibn Numan, learned through bitter experience that the dedicated armies under queen Kahena’s command were a formidable force. He set out on a classic "divide and conquer" diplomatic maneuver in preparation for another invasion. Noting Christian antipathy toward the Jews, he sent emissaries to the Christians, offering a carrot of proposed tolerance while playing on the latent fear and hostility toward the Jews.

The North African Christians were fearful of Visigothan conquest. They were susceptible to Hassan’s deceptive promises of autonomy, and their latent anti-Semitism proved more powerful than the peace and freedom they enjoyed under Judeo/Berber hegemony.

At the time, the Spanish Jews were suffering under Visigothan rule in Spain. The Visigoth kings instituted a antisemitic regimen at a succession of ecclesiastical councils at Toledo. They decreed forcible baptism, forbade circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath, festivals and rites. "Jews were flogged, executed and their property confiscated, were subjected to ruinous taxes, forbidden to trade, and, at times, dragged to the baptismal font."15

Hassan cunningly played upon the Judaic concern for their co-religionists suffering Visigothan oppression. He held out an olive branch to the Jews and proposed a joint Iberian invasion to rescue the Sephardic Jewish community from Visigothan tyranny. "Hassan’s seductive offer was actually first proposed by the Spanish Jews themselves. It was they who requested that the Arabs and the forces of Queen Kahena join to conquer the Iberian peninsula. The Spanish Jews were desperate for help in light of harsh new decrees that appropriated all their property, forbade them from all navigation and trade with Africa, prohibited all business with Christians, and required all converted Jews to eat non-kosher food in the presence of supervising clergy."16

The Judeo/Berbers were lulled into failing to mobilize for defense against the Arab army. Hassan ‘s new, fresh army of 60,000 troops, swept swiftly across the continent, this time unresisted and even sustained by the Christian communities in their path.

It soon became clear that Hassan had no intention of halting at Barbary’s borders. Unprepared, the Berber army was thrown into retreat. The queen, learning too late of the Arab perfidy, hastily mounted a counter-offensive. In desperation, the queen launched a scorched earth campaign in the path of the thundering Arab troops, burning fields, cutting down trees, and destroying dwellings to deny sustenance and booty to the invaders.

The queen’s plans were also frustrated by an enemy within her ranks. "Just as King Saul lost his kingdom upon sparing the Amelekite king, Queen Kahena lost hers when she spared the brave and handsome Khalid Ibn Yessid El Kaisi, a srikingly aristocratic youth among the captives."17

Khalid feigned to have become a loyal adopted member of Kahena’s own family. Secretly remaining a devoted Muslim, Khalid passed critical information to general Hassan about planned surprise attacks and ambushes. Thus armed, Hassan was able to prevail. Finally, probably concerned that his perfidy was about to be exposed, the trusted spy slipped out of the Berber camp, and was rewarded by Hassan with the position of deputy commander. Khalid’s intimate knowledge of Berber encampments, haunts and hideouts was a major factor in sealing the queen’s doom.

Unable to evade confrontation with the far more numerous forces under Hassan, "the two armies clashed head-on in a decisive battle at the ancient [Roman] amphitheater at Thysdrus, the modern town of El Jern. In the shadow of Rome’s former African glory, the fate of Barbary was decided. Arab historian Ibn Nuvairi records that the Berbers and the Jews fought like furies, and only the will of Allah allowed the Moslems to triumph. The remnants of the Berber force fled to the Aures mountains, with the queen’s guard at the rear. Her men begged her to flee to the safety of the Moroccan hinterlands, but Kahena preferred to remain with a handful of men holding a mountain pass against the onrushing Arabs. Like a true Zealot, she died with sword in hand.

The ignoble Hassan had her decapitated head sent back to the Arab Caliph, Abd el-Malik."18

The Jews and Berbers were given a choice: convert to Islam or die. Some 50,000 refused to convert and were massacred. The others opted for conversion.

Judaic/Berber Participation in the Islamic Conquest of Southern Iberia.
The converted Jews and Berbers became a significant part of the Arab forces which invaded Iberia. The commander of the joint Berber/Arab army which crossed the strait between Africa and Europe to conquer Spain in 711 CE was a Judeo/Berber convert said to have been one of the sons of Queen Kahena. His Arab name, Jibral-an-Tarik, became transcribed into the name of the fortress, Gibraltar, and the rock is referred to as Tarik’s rock.

Many African Jews entered conversion pragmatically, secretly continuing their faith as did the Marranos of a later period. The Iberian Jews consequently collaborated fully with the invaders. The pragmatism of the converted Jews proved advantageous to both the Arabs and the Iberian Jews. The Arabs were dependant on both the Berber convertees and the Iberian Jews for a successful invasion and thereafter for maintaining their hegemony over the conquered region of Iberia.

Arab chroniclers record that the conquerors entrusted the garrisoning of such important cities as Elvira, Seville, and Cordoba to the Jews while the invaders pressed on in hot pursuit of the fleeing Christian forces. One chronicler informs us that Malaga, which had no Jews, could not be garrisoned because no Jews resided in the city and the Christians had all fled!

The gates to the strategic city of Toledo were opened by Jews on a Palm Sunday when the Christians were attending church services. The imminence of the Arab attack had been anticipated, for the Visigothan grandees had already fled the city, and the archbishop had made tracks all the way to Rome.

"The Berber/Arab successes in Iberia were made possible only by the assistance and collaboration of both the Sephardim and the formerly Berber Jews. Once empowered, the primitive Berbers and Arabs, dependant on the industrial and commercial sagacity of the Jews for the continuation and growth of their societies and economies, instituted a period of tolerance. The Arabs absorbed the scholarly attributes of an advanced civilization. Many of the "Arab" philosophers, poets, mathematicians and scientists were converted Jews, or descendants of converted Jews. A new enlightened era for both Arabs and Jews was born.

Jews regained the right to practice their faith and the Jewish populations of North African towns soon burgeoned with new, vibrant Jewish communities.

"In Kairuwan and the province of Ifriqiya, the famous heir of the ancient Carthagenians-Semitic civilization, the Jews, reinforced by numerous arrivals from Egypt and Palestine, had a fully developed life at the time of the Fatimid rise to power (909). In fact... the enemies of the new dynasty asserted that it had much Jewish blood in its veins... During the tenth century the city of Kairuwan, glorified by the Arabs as one of the four gates to Paradise, embraced a large and prosperous Jewish community. The latter soon felt strong enough to throw off the tutelage of the eastern academies.... Fez.... became from its inception (808) a major center of Jewish culture."19

Likewise, the liberal policies of the new Berber rulers of Spain laid the foundation for "The Golden Age" of Sephardic Judaism.

Notes
1.George Gilbert, Jews in Photography; a Social History, 1996, p. 23.
2.Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews, The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1969, p. 180 .
3.Monroe Rosenthal and Isaac Mozeson, Wars of the Jews, Hippocrene Books, NY, 1990, p. 117.
4.Rosenthal and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 117-8
5.Solomon Grayzel, A History of the Jews, The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1959, p. 180.
6.Translation of Cassius by Galbraith Welch in, North African Prelude, The First Seven Thousand Years, William Morrow and Company, pp. 141-2.
7.S.S.Safrai, "he Lands of the Diaspora, in A History of the Jewish People, ed. by H.H.Ben-Sasson, Harvard Un., 1976, p. 372.
8.Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Vol. III, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia, 1957, p. 71, quoting Eutichius, "Annales," in Petrologiae Cursus Completus, series Greca, CXI, 1107 ed. by Cheiko, II. 26; John of Nikiu, Chronique, CXVII, CXX,trans. by Zotenberg, pp. 449, 455.
9.Baron, Ibid., p. 90.
10.Baron, Ibid., p. 271, note 24. Baron also cites two other works by Slouschz, Travels in North Africa and Sefer ha-Massa’ot (Travelogue) and works by other authors too numerous to repeat here. Notable is a work by J. J. Williams, Hebrewisms of West Africa, documenting the ancient intrusion of Hebrew words and expressions into the Berber languages.
11.Monroe Rosenthal and Isaac Mozeson, Ibid., p.193.
12.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 192.
13.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 192.
14.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 193-4.
15.Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews, Harper & Row, 1988, p. 177.
16.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 195.
17.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 195.
18.Rosenberg and Mozeson, Ibid. P. 196.
19.Baron, Ibid., p. 107-8.

Photo Details: The Jewess, Kahena, Queen of the Berbers, leading the armies of the consolidated Berber tribes against the invading armies of the Arab mercenaries in the year 694. "Lions of Africa and Judah!" was said to have been her rallying cry, "show these Arabs that we will not be enslaved by Islam. Let our slogan be the cry of the Zealots of old; ‘Freedom or Death!’
Drawing by Keith Gunderson in Wars of the Jews, courtesy of Monro Rosenthal and Isaac Mozeson.

Source: http://www.hebrewhistory.info/factpapers/fp019-1_africa.htm

Editor's Note: Many scholars call the inhabitants of North Africa "Berbers." This is actually misleading and quite frankly racist. The Greeks and the Romans called the indigenous populations of North Africa "Berbers" which means "barbarians." This is rather ironic, like the pot calling the kettle black. Herodotus, however, called the natives by their rightful names, beginning from the glorious Egypt to the Atlantic, they are called: Adyrmachidae, Gilligammae, Asbytae, Nasamonians, Numidians, etc. I include this article for the sake of scholarship and documenation. Interestingly enough, Steven Jacobs in his book The Hebrew Heritage of Black Africa, relays that many white Jews, particularly the older ones, are secretly admitting that the original Jews were black!